Minimally invasive procedures are of growing importance in modern surgery. Navigation and orientation are major issues during these interventions as conventional endoscopes only cover a limited eld of view. We propose the application of a Time-of-Flight (ToF) satellite camera at the zenith of the pneumoperitoneum to survey the operation situs. Due to its limited eld of view we propose a fusion of dierent 3-D views to reconstruct the situs using photometric and geometric information provided by the ToF sensor. We were able to reconstruct the entire abdomen with a mean absolute mesh-to-mesh error of less than 5 mm compared to CT ground truth data, at a frame rate of 3 Hz. The framework was evaluated on real data from a miniature ToF camera in an open surgery pig study and for quantitative evaluation with a realistic human phantom. With the proposed approach to operation situs reconstruction we improve the surgeons' orientation and navigation and therefore increase safety and speed up surgical interventions.

In  minimally  invasive  surgery  navigation  and orientation are major issues due to the limited field of view. To ensure  the  safety  while  navigating  through  the  patient´s abdomen  it  is  of  high  importance  to  avoid  collisions  with surrounding tissue and organs.  Recently, intelligent assistance systems  have  been  developed  to  eliminate  the  error  prone navigation  of  surgeons  and  replace  it  by  indirect  navigation using  a  robot.  To  ease  the  navigation  and  guarantee  that  the endoscope  always  keeps  a  fixed  distance  to  the  operation  site we  introduce  a  Time-of-Flight  based  module  for  robotic assistance systems. Our module allows the endoscope to hover over the situs to avoid collisions with healthy tissue.

In the field of image-guided surgery, Time-of-Flight (ToF) sensors are of interest due to their fast acquisition of 3-D surfaces. However, the poor signal-to-noise ratio and low spatial resolution of today's ToF sensors require preprocessing of the acquired range data. Super-resolution is a technique for image restoration and resolution enhancement by utilizing information from successive raw frames of an image sequence. We propose a super-resolution framework using the graphics processing unit. Our framework enables interactive frame rates, computing an upsampled image from 10 noisy frames of 200x200 px with an upsampling factor of 2 in 109 ms. The root-mean-square error of the super-resolved surface with respect to ground truth data is improved by more than 20% relative to a single raw frame.

Minimally invasive procedures are of importance in modern surgery due to reduced operative trauma and recovery time. To enable robot assisted interventions, automatic tracking of endoscopic tools is an essential task. State-of-the-art techniques rely on 2-D color information only which is error prone for varying illumination and unpredictable color distribution within the human body. In this paper, we use a novel 3-D Time-of-Flight/RGB endoscope that allows to use both color and range information to locate laparoscopic instruments in 3-D. Regarding color and range information the proposed technique calculates a score to indicate which information is more reliable and adopts the next steps of the localization procedure based on this reliability. In experiments on real data the tool tip is located with an average 3-D distance error of less than 4 mm compared to manually labeled ground truth data with a frame-rate of 10 fps.

3-D Endoscopy is an evolving field of research and offers great benefits for minimally invasive procedures. Besides the pure topology, color texture is an inevitable feature to provide an optimal visualization. Therefore, in this paper, we propose a sensor fusion of a Time-of-Flight (ToF) and an RGB sensor. This requires an intrinsic and extrinsic calibration of both cameras. In particular, the low resolution of the ToF camera (64x50 px) and inhomogeneous illumination precludes the use of standard calibration techniques. By enhancing the image data the use of self-encoded markers for automatic checkerboard detection, a re-projection error of less than 0.23 px for the ToF camera was achieved. The relative transformation of both sensors for data fusion was calculated in an automatic manner.

Eine der größten Herausforderungen computergestützter Assistenzsysteme für laparoskopische Eingriffe ist die intraoperative akkurate und schnelle Rekonstruktion der Organoberfläche. Während Rekonstruktionstechniken basierend auf Multiple View Methoden, beispielsweise Stereo-Rekonstruktion, schon länger Gegenstand der Forschung sind, wurde erst kürzlich das weltweit erste Time-of-Flight (ToF) Endoskop vorgestellt. Die Vorteile gegenüber Stereo liegen in der hohen Aktualisierungsrate und dem dichten Tiefenbild unabhängig von der betrachteten Szene. Demgegenüber stehen allerdings Nachteile wie schlechte Genauigkeit bedingt durch hohes Rauschen und systematische Fehler. Um die Vorteile beider Verfahren zu vereinen, wird ein Konzept entwickelt, die ToF-Endoskopie-Technik mit einem stereoähnlichen Multiple-View-Ansatz (Struktur durch Bewegung) zu fusionieren. Der Ansatz benötigt keine zusätzliche Bildgebungsmodalität wie z.B. ein Stereoskop, sondern nutzt die ohnehin akquirierten (Mono-) Farbdaten des ToF-Endoskops. Erste Ergebnisse zeigen, dass die Genauigkeit der Oberflächenrekonstruktion mit diesem Ansatz verbessert werden kann.